Reasons for Swearing as a Form of Self-Talk in Sport and Exercise: Development and Validation of a New Questionnaire

Swearing is a powerful and emotionally charged form of language that has recently gained increased scholarly attention. While commonly used for emotional release, its role in sport and exercise ‘self-talk’ remains understudied. Prior evidence suggests that swearing may aid in pain management, emotion regulation, and performance enhancement, yet research in athletic contexts has largely focused on conventional self-talk. To address this gap, the present study developed and validated the Reasons for Swearing in Sport and Exercise Questionnaire (RSSEQ), a novel tool assessing reasons motivating swearing among competitive athletes, coaches, and recreational exercisers. A total of 513 participants completed the RSSEQ. Exploratory (n = 333) and confirmatory (n = 180) factor analyses supported a three-factor structure: Stress and Emotional Catharsis, Mental Strength Enhancement, and Coping with Physical Discomfort and Pain. Males reported greater use of swearing for mental strength and pain-related coping, while no gender differences were observed for emotional catharsis. Athletes reported more swearing for emotional catharsis than did coaches, but no differences emerged in motivational or pain-related use. No significant differences were found between competitive and recreational athletes or between team and individual sport participants. These findings establish a foundation for future research on the psychological functions of swearing in sport and exercise, encouraging further exploration of its effectiveness and potential integration into mental training strategies, alongside more traditional self-talk approaches.